Mineral resources In India

Top Mineral Producer in India (State-wise) and other Countries

MINERAL	TYPE	MINES	TOP PRODUCERS (STATES)	TOP PRODUCERS (COUNTRIES)	TOP RESERVES (STATES)
IRON ORE	Metallic (Ferrous)	Barabil – Koira Valley(Orissa) Bailadila Mine (Chattisgarh) Dalli-Rajhara(CH) – the largest mine in India	1. Orissa 2. Chattisgarh 3. Karnataka	1. China, 2. Australia, 3. Brazil 4. India	1. Orissa 2. Jharkhand 3. Chattisgarh
MANGANESE	Metallic (Ferrous)	Nagpur– Bhandara Region (Maharashtra) Gondite Mines (Orissa) Khondolite deposits (Orissa)	1. Madhya Pradesh 2. Maharashtra	1. China 2. Gabon 3. South Africa 5. India	1. Orissa 2. Karnataka 3. Madhya Pradesh
CHROMITE	Metallic (Ferrous)	Sukinda Valley (Orissa) Hasan Region (Karnataka)	1. Orissa 2. Karnataka 3. Andhra Pradesh	1.South Africa 2.India 3.Russia	1. Sukinda Valley (OR) 2. Guntur Region (AP)
NICKEL	Metallic (Ferrous)	Sukinda Valley (Orissa) Singhbhum Region (Jharkhand)	1. Orissa 2. Jharkhand	1. Phillippines 2. Russia 3. Canada	1. Orissa 2. Jharkhand 3. Karnataka
COBALT	Metallic (Ferrous)	Singhbhum Region (Jharkhand) Kendujhar (Orissa) Tuensang (Nagaland)	1. Jharkhand 2. Orissa 3. Nagaland	1.Democratic Republic of Congo 2. China 3. Canada
BAUXITE	Metallic (Non-Ferrous)	Balangir(Orissa) Koraput (Orissa) Gumla(Jharkhand) Shahdol (Madhya Pradesh)	1. Orissa 2. Gujarat	1. Australia 2. China, 3. Brazil	1. Junagarh (GJ) 2. Durg (CH)
COPPER	Metallic (Non-Ferrous)	Malanjkhand Belt (Madhya Pradesh) Khetri Belt (Rajasthan) Kho-Dariba (Rajasthan)	1. Madhya Pradesh 2. Rajasthan 3. Jharkhand	1. Chile 2. China 3. Peru	1. Rajasthan 2. Madhya Pradesh 3. Jharkhand
GOLD	Metallic (Non-Ferrous)	Kolar Gold Field (Karnataka) Hutti Gold Field (Karnataka) Ramagiri Mines (Andhra Pradesh) Sunarnarekha Sands (Jharkhand)	1. Karnataka 2. Jharkhand	1. China 2. USA 3. South Africa	1. Bihar 2. Rajasthan 3. Karnataka
SILVER	Metallic (Non-Ferrous)	Zawar Mines (Rajasthan) Tundoo Mines (Jharkhand) Kolar Gold Fields (Karnataka)	1. Rajasthan 2. Karnataka	1. Peru 2. Mexico 3. China	1. Rajasthan 2. Jharkhand
LEAD	Metallic (Non-ferrous)	Rampura Aghucha (Rajasthan) Sindesar Mines (Rajasthan)	1. Rajasthan 2. Andhra Pradesh 3. Madhya Pradesh	1. China 2. Australia 3. USA	1. Rajasthan 2. Madhya Pradesh
TIN	Metallic (Non-Ferrous)	Dantewada (Chhattisgarh)	Chhattisgarh (only state in India)	1. China 2. Indonesia 3. Peru	Chattisgarh
MAGNESIUM	Metallic (Non-Ferrous)	Chalk Hills (Tamilnadu) Almora (Uttarakhand)	1. Tamil Nadu 2. Uttarakhand 3. Karnataka	1. China 2. Russia 3. Turkey	1. Tamil Nadu 2. Karnataka
LIMESTONE	Non-Metallic	Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) Satna (Madhya Pradesh) Cuddapah (AP)	1. Rajasthan 2. Madhya Pradesh	1. China 2. India	1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Rajasthan 3. Gujarat
MICA	Non-Metallic	Gudur Mines (Aandhra Pradesh) Aravalis (RaJasthan) Koderma (Jharkhand)	1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Rajasthan 3. Orissa	1. India 2. Russia
DOLOMITE	Non-Metallic	Bastar, Raigarh (Chhattisgarh) Birmitrapur (Orissa) Khammam Region (Aandhra Pradesh)	1. Chattisgarh 2. Andhra Pradesh	1. India	1. Chattisgarh 2. Orissa
ASBESTOS	Non-Metallic	Pali (Rajasthan) – largest mine Cuddapah (Aandhra Pradesh)	1. Rajasthan 2. Andhra Pradesh 3. karnataka	1. Russia 2. China	1. Rajasthan 2. Andhra Pradesh
KYANITE	Non-Metallic	Pavri Mines (Maharashtra) – Oldest kyanite mine in india Nawargaon Mines (Maharashtra)	1. Jharkhand 2. Maharashtra 3. Karnataka	1. USA 2. China 3. Japan	1. Maharastra 2. Jharkhand
GYPSUM	Non-Metallic	Jodhpur, Bikaner, Jaisalmer-Rajasthan	1. Rajasthan 2. Tamil Nadu 3. Gujarat	1. China 2. USA 3. Iran	1. Rajasthan 2. Tamil Nadu 3. J & K
DIAMOND	Non-Metallic	Majhgawan Panna Mines (Madhya Pradesh) – only active diamond mine in India	1. Madhya Pradesh – only diamond producing state	1. Russia 2. Bostwana 3. Democratic Republic of Congo
COAL	Non-Metallic (Energy)	Korba Coalfield, Birampur –Chhattisgarh Jharia Coalfield, Bokaro Coalfield, Girdih –(Jharkhand) Talcher field – (Orissa) Singaruli coalfields (Chhattisgarh) - Largest	1. Chattisgarh 2. Jharkhand 3. Orissa	1. China 2. USA 3. India	1. Jharkhand 2. Orissa 3. Chattisgarh
PETROLEUM	Non-Metallic(Energy)	Lunej, Ankleshwar, Kalol–Gujarat Mumbai high–Maharashtra – largest oil field Digboi–Assam–Oldest oil filed in India	1. Maharastra 2. Gujarat	1. Russia 2. Saudi Arabia 3. USA	1. Gujarat 2. Maharastra
URANIUM	Atomic	Jaduguda mine (Jharkhand) Tummalapalle mine (Andhra Pradesh) –largest mine Domiasiat Mine (Meghalaya)	1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Jharkhand 3. Karnataka	1. Canada 2. Australia 3. Kazakhistan	1. Jharkhand 2. Andhra Pradesh 3. Karnataka
THORIUM	Atomic		1. Kerala 2. Jharkhand 3. Bihar	1. Australia 2. USA 3. India	1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Tamil Nadu 3. Kerala

Seismologists found Mountains and smooth plains within deep mantle below 660km boundary

Massive Bolivian earthquake reveals mountains 660km below our feet.::--
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We know from school that earth interior consist of three layers the crust, the mantle and the core. All the topographic features lies over the crust. But recently seismologists discovered the mountains and  other topography within mantle.

Geophysicist used the seismic data from a massive earthquake in Bolivia to find mountains at the depth of 660km boundary. These underground mountains are larger than that on earth surface like Rockies, Andes, Appalachian, Himalayas, Alps,etc .

How and who discovered the topography like mountains within mantle?

The Princeton geophysicists Jessica Irving and Wenbo Wu, in collaboration with Sidao No from the Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics in China discovered the mountains and other topography on a layer located 660km depth, which separates the upper and lower mantle.

For this study they used data of the second largest deep earthquake ever recorded that shook Bolivia in 1994 of magnitude 8.2 earthquake. Seismologists and data scientists use Tiger supercomputers to simulate the behaviour of seismic waves in the deep earth.

Seismic waves (P-waves and S-wave) have ability to reflect(bounce) or refract (bend) when passes through medium. Straight path indicates homogeneous rocks but reflect or refract when they encounter any boundary or roughness. With the increase in one magnitude on Richter scale seismic energy increased by more than 32 times.

We know mantle constitutes 84% of the total volume of the earth. At the depth of 410 km to 660km within a mantle lies a transition zone  that separates upper and lower mantle. Below 660km boundary the heat energy cycle (mantle convection) produce two situation :-
1) well mixed upper and lower layers of mantle form homogeneous surface or plains.
2) not mixed, keep thermal and physical difference between the upper and lower mantle , represents the roughness within mantle. These roughness leads to mighty mountains below the 660km boundary.
 Geochemical and minerological differences arise due to subduction process of plates . Within the mantle subducted plates does not get melted and thus produce the reliefs like mountains and plains at the 660 km boundary or below.

Greening of world study by NASA and others

NASA two satellite, the Terra and the Aqua  has sensor known as Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer ( MODIS) data says that :--

-- One third Greening effort in the world in recent two decades is contributed by China and India due to the implementation of major tree planting projects alongside a vast increase in agriculture.

--- China and India account for one-third of the greening, but contain only 9% of the planet's land area covered in vegetation. 

--- China contribute 1/4th(25%) increase in green leaf area, despite possessing only 6.6% of world's Area. Forest account for that 42% of that increase, while croplands make up a further 32%.

---  India has contribute a further 6.8% rise in green leaf area,with 82% from cropland and 4.4% from forests.

--- due to multiple cropping practices, production of grains, vegetables, fruits and more have increased by 35-40% since 2000 to feed their large populations.

-- due to a warmer, wetter climate and fertilzation from added carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, leading to more green leaf cover.

--- due to environmental movement in India and China in 70's and 80's,  government and people realise to fix the problem caused by deforestation through social forestry programme , joint forest management, REDD plus initiative by UN, PAN programme increased the conserved and protected areas.

--- a direct line can not be drawn between an increase in global greening and a decrease in adverse impacts of climate change. For example in croplands the relationship of greening to carbon storage is even less clear.

--- but in same period there is a loss of leaf area in Tropical natural vegetation of Congo, Brazil and Indonesia.

Other impacts of carbon dioxide fertlization and  NPP on global greening.

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--- Doubling atmospheric CO2 is likely going to cause some "greening" of the terrestrial biosphere globally under equilibrium conditions, especially if factors such as water and nutrient availability do not become limiting, Likely, much of the greening will manifest itself in the tropics, not in mid-latitudes; 

--- warming negates much of the CO2 effect Limiting growth factors are common throughout the terrestrial biosphere, thus the calculated "CO2-only" effects represent a best case scenario

--- Equilibrium conditions are a model construct not accounting for transient developments, particularly short-term weather extremes with the potential to eliminate long-term gains.

India's Strategic Petroleum Reserves

India's Strategic Petroleum Reserves :--
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Strategic petroleum reserves means storing crude oil in underground constructed rock caverns. These underground rock caverns are located on the east and west coast of India. Underground caverns are considered the safest means of storing hydrocarbons.

   To ensure energy security, the government of India also planned like USA, China and Japan to store crude oil for strategic reasons as given below :-
 1) to meet the emergency situations that leads to disruption of oil supplies.

 2) India's high dependence on import oil mainly from west Asia.
3)  Nearly 80% of our needs fulfilled by import. This can be disrupted due to political instability in west Asia, war and conflicts, or accidents or blockades, sanctions.
4) to reduce High oil inflation impacts , oil prices may be  crossing 100 rupees which has adverse impact on prices of other commodities.
5) strategic petroleum reserves (SPR) used to plug the demand -supply gap, providing raw material to oil refineries, to maintain GDP growth rate,
6) India is the 3rd largest energy consumer after US and China. There is a global practice to keep the strategic petroleum reserves of 90 days import. India has long way to go.

 What India has done to achieve this strategic petroleum reserves ?

In 2005, Government of India set up India strategic petroleum reserves (ISPR) limited , HQ at Noida. Strategic crude oil reserves, which are state funded to meet emergency situations, allows a country to meet the short time supply disruptions. International energy agency (IEA) members maintain emergency oil reserves equivalent to already 90 days of net imports.

At the time of growing uncertainties in global oil markets, such reserves will help India to manage supply and price rise . The number of days of reserves will not be static because as our demand keeps increasing. The number of days of our reserves also change. In today's demand scenario, refineries have an inbuilt capacity of 65 days.
 There is two phases to construct the strategic petroleum reserves in India.

Phase 1 involves addition of crude oil for 10 days with total storage of 5.33MMT reserves . This phase choosen 3 locations  east and west coast of India. It is completed.
To ensure energy security, the government of India has decided to set up 5.33Million metric tonnes (MMT) of strategic crude oil storage at 3 locations namely, Visakhapatnam(1.33 MMT), Manglore(1.5), and Padur -2.5 (near udupi,  karnataka) .only UAE based Abu dhabi National Oil Co (Adnoc) have committed to India's crude oil reserves programme till date.

 Phase 2  strategic reserves is also planned by government in 2 locations to add reserves for 12 more days with investments of $1.6billion. It consist of addition of 6.5mmt of total reserves where 4mmt at Chandikhol near Jajpur Odisha and 2.5MMT at Padur near udupi karnataka.
After completing this phase India's strategic reserves facilities together support 22 days of India's crude oil requirements. India's refineries also maintain 65 days of crude
oil storage, taking the total reserves for 87 days.

The created and proposed strategic petroleum reserves (SPR) of 11.83 million metric tonnes is supplied through pipelines and ships.

The PPP model promises valuable incentives to an array of stakeholders looking to make profit, logistics and location advantage; availability of low cost underground storage facility, suitable land parcel and geological settings for creation of SPR, promising opportunity for financing, to help sustainability of oil market,

Hindu kush Himalaya assessment report

Hindukush - Himalayan (HKH) assessment report published by Kathmandu based international centre for integrated mountain development (ICIMOD) :--
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The HKH is young folded greatest mountain system in the world covering 4.2 million sqkm across 8 countries : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar , Nepal and Pakistan. The HKH is also refers to Third pole because of third largest icecover or Glacier outside north and south pole.

This region is vital due to following factors :

1) ecological significance , diverse flora and Fauna, vast reserves of natural resources such as 4 global biodiversity hotspots.
2) Third Pole significance, cryospherically,  largest reserves of ice outside the Polar regions. Mountainous Glacier.
3) Water resources role to Asian countries since HKH region is a source of 10 major Asian Rivers such as Gangs, Brahmaputra, Mekong, salween, Irrawaddy, Yangtze, Amur Darya, Tarim, Yellow, Indus.
4) sustainability of people : 240 million people depends directly on the HKH for lives and livelihoods. 1.9 billion people depends on on the HKH for water, food and  energy. > 35% of the world population benefits indirectly from HKH resources and ecosystem services. 3 billion people benefits from the food produced in it's river basins.
5) support diverse cultures, languages, religions and traditional knowledge systems of south east Asia, east Asia, South  Asia, central Asia.
6) High biodiversity, 330 important Bird and biodiversity areas.

Key issues in HKH are :--

--- vulnerable to erosion and landslides
--- region undergoing rapid change, driven by forces such as climate change, disasters, economic growth, globalisation, infrastructure development, land use change, migration and urbanisation.
--- even if global warming is limited to 1.5°C, warming will be likely be at least 0.3°C higher in the HKH, and at least 0.7°C higher in the North west Himalayas and karakoram. By the end of century (2100), the Hindu Kush Himalaya will warm by around 1.8°C.
--- There has been a rising trend of extreme warm events in the HKH over the past 5-6 decades, a falling trend of extreme cold events.
--- ghg's concentration increase, aerosols, increases and land use changes leads to extreme temperature , days and nights are getting warmer, extremes in precipitation increasing, the HKH will warm more than the global mean.  Even Tibetan plateau, central Himalayan range and karakoram will warm more than the HKH average, increasing western disturbances.
--- melting of HKH Glacier leads to thining, retreating, breaking , decreases it's areas,  will be affecting water supplies to Asian Rivers and lifelines of more than 35 %of world population get affected, water wars in Asian countries will be accelerating, food insecurity, starvation, hunger and poverty all will be aggravated.
--- biodiversity loss in the HKH region adversely affect the ecosystem and loss of ecosystem services to 1/4th of humanity. Since 1/4th of endemic species in the Indian Himalaya could be wiped out by 2100. The 70-80% of habitat lost in biodiversity in HKJ (relative to 1500A.D.) The 39% of HKH is under protected areas covering 1.6million sqkms. Biodiversity in HKH needs to be sustained to  ensure the continued flow of services.
--- The HKH remains energy poor despite it's huge hydropower potential of around 500GW because of low priority and failure to address challenges of remoteness and fragility, inadequate data is a barrier to context specific interventions.
--- the cryosphere of HKH affects the water supply due to decrease in snow covered areas and snow volumes, glaciers have thinned, retreated and ice-mass lost. Permafrost will continue to thaw and the depth of the active layer will increase. There is increased risk of dangerous glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) since 1990's.
--- Hydrological trends related to cryospheric change are difficult to identify due to influence of discharge, scarcity in long term, high interannual variability.
--- water security or HKH is also described as water tower of Asia because it meltwaters and glaciers supply waters to Rivers, streamflow, groundwater. It provides water and ecosystem services for 2 billion people. Important for ensuring water, food, energy, and environmental security of the continent.
--- Increase in streamflow expected due to climate change till 2050 and decrease in pre-monsoon flow thereafter. Hydropower can disrupt natural flow regimes, inturn harming local irrigation, fisheries and ecosystems. India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and China together account for more than 50% of the worlds groundwater withdrawals.
--- food and nutritional insecurity remains a serious challenge in the HKH. More than 30% of the population suffer from food insecurity and around 50% face malnutrition. It is due to high poverty, natural resources depletion ,climate change, low market development, uncertain food support, inadequate policy and institutional support. The cultivation of traditional crops is declining, with a few crops dominance.
---  Air pollution in HKH is on the rise and air quality has worsened in the past two decades. Indo-Gangetic plains has persistent winter fog and haze. It is due to increase concentration of GHG's , accelerated melting in cryosphere through the deposition of black carbon and dust, and changing monsoon circulation and rainfall distribution over Asia. Aerosols is more absorbed in HKH due to higher concentration of SPM . It leads to melting of snow and glaciers, poor visibility as 90% during winters, affecting shifts in rainfall dynamics.
--- Natural hazards in the HKH are increasing  in magnitude and frequency due to climate change such as GLOF events due to the instability of moraine material.
--- mountain regions of the HKH have a higher incidence of economic, multidimensional and income poverty levels than the plains. Around 31%of HKH population is below poverty line, majority of people are poor and politically and socially marginalised.

Recent evidences of global warming and climate change

Global warming and climate change impact is quite evident by extreme weather events. UN,  WMO and IPCC data also confirms warming of the Earth .

It leads to interconnected events such as :-

1) air temperatures is increasing ,record higher temperature each passing year. The year 2018, is the hottest year of century and crosses 1degree clesius temperature rise W.r.t. pre-industrial phase.

2) melting of ice cover from first pole of Arctic ocean, Greenland glaciers, second pole of Antarctic glaciers, Third pole of Hindukush -Himalayan region,  receding glaciers, breaking ice shelves,

3) weakining of Polar vortex , making Polar jet stream more wavy, during winter cold air mass of poles enters the lower latitudes causing extreme chill winds, temperatures falls below -50 degree Celsius, heavy snowfall, while during summer season heat waves causing heat strokes, forest fires, tropical disease spread,etc.

4) water resources is being depleted due to speedy hydrological cycle operations, extreme rainy days and longer dry spells, floods, droughts, soil erosion, silting of water bodies, desertification, shrinking of water bodies, example : lake Chad, lake Urmia,  Aral sea of central Asia.

5) stormy weather conditions such as Tropical cyclones, storms, thunderstorm activities are intense, dust storms, sand storms, cloud burst, etc is damaging the ecology , loss of life and property.

6) seawater changes due to global warming is rising of sea temperatures, thermal expansion (stearic effect) and melting of icesheets is adding waters leads to sea level rise, coral bleaching, coral erosion, submergence of Islands, oceanic acidification, dead oceanic zones,etc

7) poor health and infection related diseases is spreading, avian influenza, food production and agricultural sector is being damaged, food crisis leads to failure of crops, less nutritive crops, farmer distress intensified, starvation related death increases, out migration dominates, environmental refugees of Africa's Sahel region and horn of Africa and Yemen.

8 ) loss of biodiversity, mass extinction of species, migration of vegetation towards higher latitude and higher altitudes.

9) ice cover and glaciers are melting at faster rate from Arctic ocean, Antarctic , Himalayas, Greenland, etc

10) local community such as tribal, rural, fishing , forest dwellers, pastoral, coastal, etc adversely affected, increasing their vulnerability, loss of livlihoods.

11) intensity and frequency of Tropical cyclones has been increased.

12) precipitation patterns are changing causing frequent droughts and floods.

Earthquakes or seismicity : cause, distribution, measurement, consequences,seismic zones of India, mitigation and adaptations

Earthquakes or Seismicity :--

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---- Definition, Elements, seismic waves.

---- Cause : Elastic Rebound theory of Harry Fielding Reid.

---- Stress and strain causing Factors that trigger earthquakes

--- measurement of an earthquake by

   a) magnitude of an earthquake

   b) intensity of an earthquake.

--- seismic map of world.

--- seismic zones if India.
--- consequences

--- Disaster management :-Mitigation and Adaptation measure to reduce risk of earthquake. 

  Earthquake is a sudden shaking of the ground/ earth surface. It leads to vibration or oscillation of the earth surface.
 Each Earthquake is associated with 3 elements :-

1) Focus(Hypocenter) :- located inside the earth interior ,below the surface from where earthquake originates. On the basis of depth the earthquakes are classified into 2 groups :
  a) shallow focus earthquake above 70km depth. b) deep focus earthquake between 70-700km depth.
2) Epicentre is a point vertically above the Focus (Hypocenter) on the earth surface. It is a location of maximum damage.

3) seismic wave :- the seismic energy is released from hypocenter is P-wave and S -wave which is at epicentre produce the surface waves. See the the diagram below :

P-wave is primary seismic wave originates from focus. Characterised by it's longitudinal nature (compressional wave), passes through both solid and liquid medium, fastest among all seismic wave.

S-wave is secondary seismic wave characterised by slower than P-wave, Transverse ( distortions wave) in nature, only passes through solid medium.

Surface wave decay with depth , it consist of two components : a) Rayleigh wave -- it is a rolling  wave containing perpendicular and parallel motion of particles. It moves slower than 90% of S-wave speed. b) love wave-- it is transverse wave, it is little faster than Rayleigh wave. It is most destructive wave. Love wave destroy the foundation of building structure and later, Rayleigh wave leads to collapse of building structure.

How earthquake occurs? 

Mechanism of  an earthquake is explained by elastic rebound theory given by Harry fielding Reid in 1906. According to elastic rebound concept, when applied stress on rock exceeds the elasticity/strength of rocks then strain developed,  resulting into sudden sliping/sliding of rock from where seismic energy is released in different direction. Location from seismic energy is released called as faults/fracture/gap/crack in the block. 

There is two type of slide/slip against hanging wall block and footwall block 

a) Dip-slide/slip slopes for convergenceplate boundary as Thrust fault or divergence plate boundaries as Normal fault.            

 b) strike-slip fault develops at transform/parllel plate boundaries.

Stress causing factors leads to earthquake
Major earthquakes caused by :-
1) Tectonic Induced earthquakes at plate boundaries.
2) Volcanic Induced earthquakes at volcanic sources such as volcanic peaks in folded mountains, island arcs, hotspots, mid-oceanic ridges, rift valleys.
3) landslide induced earthquakes.
4) Dam/Reservoir Induced earthquakes.

Minor triggers for earthquakes are :-
 5) sand blasting/ mining/quarrying
 6) nuclear testing
 7) pumping of ground waters
 8) meteorite falling

Geographical distribution : seismic zone of the world. :

1) Circum-Pacific region/belt

2) Mid-continental belt or Alpide belt

3) carribean belt

4) mid-afternoon oceanic ridges of Atlantic, Indian and Arctic ocean and South east pacific rise

5) east African rift valley 

6)volcanic hotspot

7) San-Andreaus Fault.

Measurement of an Earthquakes by two ways :-

1) Magnitude(M)

2) Intensity (I)

   Magnitude of an earthquake means measurement of an amplitude of seismic wave as shown below record by seismograph/seismometer.

Seismographic recording is being calibrated using lograthmic scale with base 10. Richter scale measure the magnitude of an earthquake .it is a decimal number between 1 to 10. If magnitude of earthquake increase by 1order than amplitude increase by 10 times and energy increase by 33 times. Earthquakes is felt when magnitude is more than 5. The energy release of an earthquake , which closely correlates to it's destructive power, scales with the 3/2 power of shaking amplitude.Thus, a difference in magnitude of 1.0 is equivalent to a factor of 31.6 () in the energy released; a difference in magnitude of 2.0 is equivalent to a factor of 1000 () in the energy released.

Intensity of earthquake measure the damage caused by an earthquake. It depends on local factors such as geological and tectonic stability , population ,economic infrastructure, level of preparedness and disaster management , technology, etc. There are many sales varies from time to time and region to region as given below :-

The most popular scale for Intensity measurement is modified mercalli scale (MM scale). It is a Roman number from I to XII.

 MM scale for intensity of earthquake
From I to XII  is mainly used in USA.  India used similar scale called MSK scalelike israel, Russia, CIS . The Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale, also known as the MSK or MSK-64, is a macroseismic intensity scale used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the basis of observed effects in an area of the earthquake occurrence. It is also represented by Roman numeral of  12 degree intensity.

Seismic zones of India :-
Old map consist of 5 zones while new seismic map consist of 4 zones,  Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) used building code according to seismic zones.

Zone 5 :- very high risk zone, here magnitude of an earthquake is more than 8, and MSK scale is > IX  . It includes Himalayan states jammu and Kashmir to arunachal Pradesh,north eastern states and Andaman and Nicobar Islands due to collision of Indian plate in north with Eurasian plate and in east with Sunda/Burmese plate. It also include Lunch region of Gujarat. So, zone 5 lies under tectonically active region.  The earthquake intensity for this zone is MSK-IX or greater. The zone factor for this zone is 0.36, which is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquake in this zone.

Zone 4 :- High risk zone, here M =7-8, I =MSK value between VIII to IX. It include areas surrounding zone 5 in Himalayas, north east, kutch region as well as Northern plains and coastal plains of India. The zone factor for this zone is 0.24.

Zone 3 :- moderate risk zone, here M =6-7, MSK value = VII to VIII, 

The zone factor for this zone is 0.16. It includes the river valleys of peninsular India.

Zone 2:- low risk zone, here M =5-6, I = MSK value = Vi to VII, The zone factor for this zone is 0.10. It includes the other parts of Peninsular India .since it is a stable landmass away from fault lines.

Consequences of an earthquakes

1) disaster by destroyed

LNG terminal in India : need and facilities

LNG terminals in India :-
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India has shifting it's energy policy from coal and oil based to LNG based energy mix policy. Today,  India is the 4th largest importer of LNG in world. This shift is due to:
1) less carbon emissions from LNG to meet Paris agreement commitment of 40% carbon reduction.
2) downstream industries such as refineries, petrochemical units, fertiliser plants, power plants, cement, glass,ceremics,etc.
3) city gas distribution by pipeline for domestic and commercial use.
 4) employment generation by attracting investments in this sector.
5) shortage of domestic supplies and existing oil and gas sources on western off-source fields and
 6) coal is only localised in eastern and central part of India. Even, coal is polluting Paris agreement commitment is restricting it usage along with huge transportation cost.
7) utilisation of existing Gas pipeline infrastructure.
 
India imports 45% of the total amount of natural gas it consumes. With the government's plan to raise the share of natural gas in the country's energy mix to 15% by 2030 from about 6.5% now, import of LNG is expected to rise. Natural gas consumption in the country rose 5% to 58 billion cubic meters in 2017-18. The government expects half of India to have access to piped gas for cooking and transport after the new city gas licensing round, which is currently underway.

Over the last three years, GAIL and Petronet reworked their contracts with suppliers from the Middle-East, Russia and Australia, bringing in more price and delivery flexibility to LNG import.

Solution lies in Importing LNG from countries like Qatar, Australia, Oman ,USA and Russia. Even Iran is also interested to export.
          LNG Imports required transporting facilities such as LNG tankers, undersea pipeline or pipeline connecting storage terminal to markets. Regulatory policy by government.
---- Till now maximum import comes to India from Qatar, Australia, Oman, USA and Russia.
--- India's first LNG receiving and terminal public sector company is Petronet limited. Formed as a joint venture by the Government of India to import LNG and set up LNG terminals in the country, it involves India's leading oil and natural gas industry players. Our promoters are GAIL (India) Limited (GAIL), Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC), Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL). The authorized capital is Rs. 1,200 crore ($240 million).

The company selected Gaz de France as its strategic partner. The company has also signed an LNG sale and purchase agreements with Ras Laffan Liquefied Natural Gas Company Ltd, Qatar for the supply of 8.5 MTPA LNG to India. It has 2 terminal at Dahej and Cochin under operational and at 3rd terminal under construction at Gangavaram, Andhra Pradesh.

--- There exist 4 existing operational terminals at 1) Dahej--Gujrat  2)Cochin--Kerala, 3) Hazira--Gujrat, 4)Dahbol near Ratnagiri --Maharashtra and government plans new 11LNG terminals. See the map and table below: