Sea Level Rise Causes, Impacts, and Solution

The sea, a vast and powerful force, has captivated humanity for millennia. But our planet's oceans are not static; they are in a constant state of flux. Sea level, the average height of the ocean's surface, has risen and fallen throughout Earth's history, leaving its mark on the land and its inhabitants. Understanding these changes is crucial, for they hold the key to our planet's past and future. Sea level changes can be global, affecting coastlines worldwide, or local, impacting specific regions. A rise in sea level can reshape continents, inundate low-lying areas, and alter ecosystems. Conversely, a fall can expose land bridges, create new coastal plains, and trigger shifts in plant and animal life. Throughout geological time, sea levels have fluctuated dramatically. During glacial periods, vast ice sheets locked up enormous volumes of water, causing sea levels to plummet. Conversely, interglacial periods, like the one we are currently experiencing, witness the melting of these ice sheets, leading to a rise in sea levels. These natural fluctuations have shaped our planet for millions of years. However, the rate of sea level rise we are witnessing today is unprecedented in human history. This rapid change is primarily driven by human activities, making it imperative to understand its causes and consequences. causes : The IPCC projections include estimates of contributions from: Ocean thermal expansion Glacier mass loss Greenland and Antarctic ice sheet surface mass balance (net change from the addition of mass through precipitation and loss through melting) and dynamic processes such as collapse of ice shelves Changes in land water storage (dams and ground water storage) Impact of sea level rise : coastal flooding intensity and frequency is increasing , earlier it was 1 in every 100 years now 1 in every 10 years. land size is decreasing due to sea level rise ; low-lying coastal areas are submerged; coral islands are (average height is 5 m or below) , will be lost if this rise of sea level continues . already many islands are being lost. submerged landforms : rias, fiords/fjords, submerged valleys, parallel islands to the coast (darmintia coast of croatia). some densely populated coastal cities are on threat of submergence and lost such as jakarta, manilla, Guangzhou, mumbai,etc-- coastal soils and water bodies are becoming saline. coral reef ecosystem : threats and challenges in the forms of coral bleaching, coral deaths, microfossil planktons such as foraminifera and diatoms sinking Higher projected storm surge and inundation levels. Landward recession or erosion of sandy shorelines. Depending on the rate and scale of sea level rise, the environmental, social and economic consequences or shoreline recession within low lying inter-tidal areas, in particular, may be significant in the medium to long term. Salt water intrusion and landward advance of tidal limits within estuaries. This may have significant implications in the medium to long term for freshwater and salt water ecosystems and development margins, particularly building structures and foundation systems within close proximity to the shoreline. Existing coastal gravity drainage, stormwater infrastructure and sewerage systems may become compromised over time as mean sea level rises. Sea level rise will influence the entrance opening regimes for intermittently closed and open lakes and lagoons and alter catchment flood behaviour over time. The level of protection provided by seawalls and other hard engineering structures will decrease over time due to increasing threat form larger storm surges and inundation at higher projected water levels. according to the study by 2100, the global population potentially exposed to episodic coastal flooding will increase from 128 -171 million to 176-287 million. the value of global assets exposed to these episodes is projected to be between $6000-$9000 billion, 12-20 %of the global GDP. GLOBALLY, 68% area that is prone to coastal flooding over 32% can be attributed to regional sea level rise by 2100. mitigation and adaptation measures against sea level rise :-- Hierarchy of Adaptation Options Avoid the risk. Identify future ‘no build areas’ and use planning tools to prevent new development in areas at risk now or in the future. Undertake a planned or managed retreat from the risk. Withdraw, relocate or abandon assets that are at risk and allow ecosystems to retreat landward as sea levels rise. Accommodate for the risk. Continue to use the land but accommodate changes by building in piles growing salt tolerant crops or converting from agriculture to aquaculture. Protect from the risk. Use hard structure (sea walls) or soft solutions (dunes and vegetation) to protect land from the sea.

Carbon Farming The Future of Sustainable future

Carbon Farming: 

• Carbon farming integrates the fundamental role of carbon in life processes with agricultural practices, focusing on regenerative techniques that enhance ecosystem health, improve soil health, and boost agricultural productivity. 

• This approach helps mitigate climate change by increasing carbon storage in soil and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

 • It is adaptable to various agro-climatic conditions and offers solutions to issues like soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate variability. 

• The technical term for this is carbon sequestration.

Soil organic carbon is a problem to Indian soil :--

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Soil organic carbon in Indian soil fall’s to 0.3% from 1% in last 70 years. Soil carbon maintain the fertility, water retain ability, structure and microbes growth. Due to decrease in soil carbon agriculture production and productivity is falling.

According to CSE report recently 85% soil samples are deficient in soil carbon 

Causes :

1) intensive farming practices (removal of carbon from soil)

2) decreasing compost and green manuring (poor recharge of carbon into the soil)

3) excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides 

Impact:

1) declining agriculture production and productivity 

2) poor growth of microorganisms in the soil

3) food crisis and farmer distress 

Measures:

1) use of bio fertilisers and compost

2) micro irrigation facilities improvement 

3) crop diversification

 Carbon farming techniques: 

• Carbon farming employs various sustainable agricultural practices to enhance carbon sequestration, improve soil health, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

 • Techniques such as rotational grazing, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and integrated nutrient management each contribute differently. 

o Agroforestry (including silvopasture and alley cropping) increases carbon storage in vegetation, while conservation agriculture reduces soil disturbance and increases organic content. 

o Integrated nutrient management optimizes the use of organic fertilizers to promote soil fertility and reduce emissions. 

o Additionally, strategies in livestock management help lower methane emissions and enhance carbon storage in pastures.

 • Collectively, these practices not only contribute to mitigating climate change but also support diverse and resilient agricultural ecosystems.

 Challenges:

 • Carbon farming offers significant benefits but faces several challenges that affect its effectiveness, including geographical variations, soil types, crop selection, water availability, biodiversity, and the scale of farming operations.

 • Its success is also dependent on effective land management, supportive policies, and active community involvement. 

• Regions with long growing seasons, ample rainfall, and good irrigation systems are more conducive to carbon farming due to better conditions for vegetation growth and carbon sequestration.

 • Techniques like agroforestry and conservation agriculture have high potential in such fertile and well-watered areas. • Conversely, carbon farming is more challenging in arid regions with limited water availability, where water is prioritized for essential uses over agricultural expansion. 

• This scarcity can limit plant growth, essential for carbon sequestration through photosynthesis. • Additionally, the choice of plant species is critical, as not all are equally effective at trapping and storing carbon, and some may not thrive in dry conditions.

 • Economic factors also play a role, particularly in developing countries where small-scale farmers may lack the resources to implement sustainable practices without financial support. 

Global scenario:

 • Carbon farming has gained traction worldwide with schemes such as carbon trading in the agriculture sector, particularly in countries like the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and Canada where voluntary carbon markets are prominent.

 • Examples include the Chicago Climate Exchange and Australia’s Carbon Farming Initiative, which encourage practices like no-till farming and reforestation to reduce carbon emissions and enhance carbon sequestration in agriculture. 

• Internationally, projects like Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project, supported by the World Bank, demonstrate carbon farming’s potential to address climate change mitigation, adaptation, and food security in developing regions.

 • Additionally, the ‘4 per 1000’ initiative launched during the COP21 climate talks in 2015 in Paris emphasizes the critical role of carbon sinks in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. 

Indian scenario:

 • Organic and agro-ecological farming practices have demonstrated the potential to sequester carbon, with the possibility of creating an economic value of approximately $63 billion across India's 170 million hectares of arable land. 

 • This includes incentives for farmers, offering them about ₹5,000-6,000 per acre annually for providing climate services through sustainable agriculture. 

• Regions like the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Deccan Plateau are well positioned for carbon farming, whereas the Himalayan and coastal areas face challenges due to their terrain and salinisation, respectively.

 • Additionally, implementing carbon credit systems could provide farmers with supplementary income by monetizing the environmental services of carbon sequestration. 

• Research suggests that agricultural soils could absorb 3-8 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent annually over 20-30 years, significantly aiding in climate stabilization and bridging the gap in necessary emissions reductions.

 • However, scaling up carbon farming in India requires overcoming hurdles such as limited awareness, insufficient policy frameworks, technological limitations, and creating an environment conducive to adoption.

 • Despite these challenges, promoting carbon farming aligns with India's interests to combat climate change, enhance soil health, boost biodiversity, and generate economic benefits for farmers.

BIOCHAR AS A GAME CHANGER FOR AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

 BIOCHAR A GAME CHANGER IN CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURE FIELD

WHAT ARE BIOCHAR ?

          

Biochar are type of charcoal obtained from plant material such as agricultural residue, wood waste, etc by pyrolysis i.e., thermo-chemical conversion of biomass organic matter . Here, organic matter is heated in absence of oxygen and converted into biochar, bio-oil and syngas.

WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF BIOCHAR ?

Biochar is characterised by high porosity, high absorption, more stable, higher carbon content, modify the pH. Biochar can retain mositure, nutrient, foster the growth of soil microbes, able to absob the heavy metals such as lead,mercury, cadmium and arsenic.Biochar is an ideal tool for soil improvement, carbon sequestration and environmental regeneration.

WHAT ARE THE APPLICATION OF BIOCHAR ?

According to IIT Delhi study , India Biochar could sequestrate an average 376.11megatoones of CO2 equivalent carbon in the soil and could help india to reduce 41.41-63.26% of emissions from agriculture and allied activities. 

biochar is a potential solution to improve soils by increasing soil organic carbon and ferility and microbial activity and add compost to the soil, high retaintibility of soil moisture helps to increase yield, makes crop production carbon neutral, reduce the consumption of fertilizers.

Biochar can absorb metal contaminant such as lead,mercury,cadmium and arsenic used in agriculture and industries such as pigmentation, water transporting pipes, building materials. thus help in improving water quality and sanitation .

Biochar has a potential to remove air-pollutants produced from burning crop-residue or solution to problem caused by stubble burning such as CO2, CO, NOX, S, VOC, SOOT, BLACK CARBON. Helps to improve the air quality and increase longevity.

Biochar has great potential to store carbon di-oxide and store into soil because of high surface area and lower activation energy. India can convert 517.82mega tonnes of crop residue in biochar and applied 20 tonnes per hectares could sequestrate an average of 21MT CO2 equivalent of carbon due to enhanced crop yield., apart from adding soil organic carbon it add nitrogen and phosphorus. 

HOW BIOCHAR IS PRODUCED ? 

Biochar production is rooted in amazonian civilization where heated organic matter is buried under soil in absence of oxygen and which helps in improving soils , increasing yield, etc. In modern times industrial methods of biochar production is being developed

Here, any organic matter such as wood, plant waste, agricultural residue, crop residue, domestic food scraps and animal waste act as a feedstock can be used to make biochar. typically 50% of feedstock rawmaterial converted into BIOCHAR. 

The PYROLYSIS PROCESS is used to convert organic matter into Biochar. it is thermal decomposition of material at extremely high temperature in an inert environment (limited oxygen supply) . the pyrolysis produces heat and gas along with stablised biochar which is more cleaner. the quality of biochar depends on technique used, rawmaterial used, quanity of oxygen supply and temperature used.

LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES TO BE OVERCOMED FOR BIOCHAR :

1. Energy consumed in production

2. moisture content in it

3.infrastructure

4. initial cost of plant is expensive

5. variour sources of feedstocks

6. high labour cost

7. monsoonal season biocharring will not work due to rain

INDIAN GOVERNMENT SCHEMES :

 

Integrated solar dryer and pyrolysis pilot plants for smart cities

promoting the application of Biiochar in soil improvement and amendment

crop residue management

clean energy project

Energy crisis in world in 2020

 Energy crisis is a situation of widening gap between demand and supply of energy. Post COVID situation in the world witnessed the supply of natural gas,coal and other energy sources fails to adequately satisfy demand. Examples of recent natural gas crisis in Europe where prices of natural gas has risen by over 400%, prices of electricity risen by over 250%, in UK many fuel pumps running dry, in China several factories are shutdown due to power shortages linked to reduced supply of coal, In India several power plants are also running critically low coal stock. .India’s oil prices is all time high above 100 per liter, gas prices risen by 60% from last week…so on..

Causes :

1) Bounce back of economic activity after pandemic as consumer demand is back. It results into more production. For production require power which itself is short due to labour shortages.

2) greenflation: due to environmental concern and Paris agreement on climate change, government has placed restrictions on traditional energy sources coal,oil and natural gas. Encouraging more renewable energy sources NDC targets and Net zero carbon emissions target. This led to reduced investment in traditional sources of energy.

3) geopolitical factors at regional and local levels leads to reduced production of oil,gas and coal and less supplied and exported to get their hidden agenda fulfill. Russia reduced supply to Europe or OPEC countries is not rising their production.

4) economic factors operates at global level . Oil producer and marketing companies want to recover their loss caused by pandemic by rising the prices, reducing the supplies, future trading contracts , winter demand further increases. Low investment investment in energy sectors, shifted priorities 

Energy crunch in the world will further worsen in winter. 

POWER CRISIS IN INDIA DUE TO COAL SHORTAGES IN 2021

 Coal based thermal power in India at present crisis: only 3 days of coal fuel supply left out and some of thermal power plants on verge of shutdown such as Adani power of Mudra and many thermal power plants runs at 50% or less of its capacity.

Causes :

1) supply shortage due to flooding of coal mining areas of eastern and central India in this monsoon season. Coal production during monsoon is typically low, which account for lower production. However, the power plants themselves had failed to build up their stocks prior to the monsoon season due to shortage of labour force created by COVID.

2) India’s 70% of electricity generated by coal power plants in India, nearly 3/4th is generated using domestically mined coal, while rest 1/4th is generated using imported coal mainly from Indonesia and others. The prices of coal imports from Indonesia has risen from 60USD/tonne in March to 200USD/tonne in September, making coal imports undesirable options for power plants. International prices of coal increased due to power crisis in China.

3) India’s total coal production of 716million tonnes in 2020+21 coal India limited largest producer had produced 596MT..in the monsoon season production dip due to flooding resulting into shortage between 60000-80000 tonnes a day

4) demand factors increased due to fast recovery of economy after post COVID by industrial,commercial and domestic sectors. Daily consumption of electricity has crossed beyond 4billion units per day and nearly 70% demand is met through coal fired thermal power plants.

5) legacy issues such as heavy dues of coal companies in various states.

6) low investment in power sector.there is fall of 15%

Consequences:

Several states like Punjab,Delhi,Gujarat,Haryana and Tamil Nadu on verge of blackouts and frequent power cuts.

Though power shortages are already emerging, while the gap between available electricity supply and peak demand widened to more than 4GW. It is like that power plants will completely run out of fuels. Economic losses to industries and other sectors.

Measures:

— rationing of power on rotational basis

— allowing captive coal mining to sell 50%of its stocks to power plants

—- divert supplies from heavy users such as aluminium and cement plants to avoid power cuts

—- improving coal inventory at thermal plants they must keep the stockpiles for 22 days as mandatory

Concerns : coal bearing areas (acquisition and development) amendment bill 2021 would be passed in parliament in next session. Report says it will highly draconian to favour private player, creating an atmosphere of desperation. It will exempt private players from conducting social impact assessment, no land acquisition act applies, no need to take the concern of local population. The logic is peak demand was in July .

DEBATE : OVER UP GOVERNMENT DRAFT --POPULATION(CONTROL, STABILISATION AND WELFARE ) BILL, 2021

 UTTAR PRADESH GOVERNMENT DRAFT --POPULATION(CONTROL, STABILISATION AND WELFARE ) BILL, 2021

On World Population Day (11th July), Uttar Pradesh government announced a new population policy for 2021-2030.

• The new policy has provisions to give incentives to those who help in population control.
• THE UTTAR PRADESH GOVERNMENT'S DRAFT LEGISLATION-THE POPULATION (CONTROL,STABILISATION AND WELFARE) BILL, 2021-- INTRODUCING A MANDATORY TWO CHILD NORM.

 

Highlights of the draft bill on population control:

The new policy aims at:

1. Decreasing the total fertility rate from 2.7 to 2.1 by 2026 and 1.7 by 2030.
2. Increase modern contraceptive prevalence rate from 31.7% to 45% by 2026 and 52% by 2030.
3. Increase male methods of contraception use from 10.8% to 15.1% by 2026 and 16.4% by 2030.
4. Decrease maternal mortality rate from 197 to 150 to 98, and infant mortality rate from 43 to 32 to 22, and under 5 infant mortality rate from 47 to 35 to 25.

 

Focus areas:

1. To increase the accessibility of contraceptive measures issued under the Family Planning Programme and provide a proper system for safe abortion.
2. To reduce the newborns’ and maternal mortality rate.
3. To provide for care of the elderly, and better management of education, health, and nutrition of adolescents between 11 to 19 years.

 

Incentives:

1. Promotions, increments, concessions in housing schemes and others perks to employees who adhere to population control norms, and have two or less children.
2. Public servants who adopt the two-child norm will get two additional increments during the entire service, maternity or as the case may be, paternity leave of 12 months, with full salary and allowances and three percent increase in the employer’s contribution fund under the National Pension Scheme.
3. For those who are not government employees and still contribute towards keeping the population in check, will get benefits in like rebates in taxes on water, housing, home loans etc.
4. If the parent of a child opts for vasectomy, he/she will be eligible for free medical facilities till the age of 20.

The Uttar Pradesh government plans to set up a state population fund to implement the measures.

 

Awareness creation:

• The draft bill also asks the state government to introduce population control as compulsory subject in all secondary schools.

 

Applicability:

1. The provision of this legislation shall apply to a married couple where the boy is not less than 21 years of age and the girl is not less than 18.
2. The policy will be voluntary – it will not be enforced upon anyone.

 

Need for these measures:

Overpopulation exerts strain on resources. It is therefore necessary and urgent that the provision of basic necessities of human life including affordable food, safe drinking water, decent housing, access to quality education, economic/livelihood opportunities, power/electricity for domestic consumption, and a secure living is accessible to all citizens.

 

Issues and concerns associated with the Bill:

1. Experts have advised caution against any population policy that puts women’s health and well being at risk.
2. Given that the burden of contraception and family planning disproportionately falls on women, it is likely that female sterilisation will increase further.
3. Stringent population control measures can potentially lead to an increase in these practices and unsafe abortions given the strong son-preference in India, as has been witnessed in a few states in the past. 
4. State already undergoing a declining fertility rate (TFR), which already halved from 4.82 in 1993 to 2.7 in 2016. it is estimated that the state will achieve the replacement level of TFR(2.1) by 2025.
5. Women organisations termed it unconstitution, for violating the rights to equality as it enforces compulsion, attempts to control womens bodily rigts and fertility, will expose them to domestic violence and abusive relationships.
6. The empirical studies reiterated that socio-economic empowerment of families is far more effective way in limiting the family size, enabling women to opt for reduced fertility rates as rational choices.
7. political parties dubbed the UP bill an 'election propaganda' to attack muslim communities

Arsenic contamination of groundwater India case study

     

ARSENIC CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER IN INDIA :---->

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STUDIES CARRIED BY NATIONAL RURAL DRINKING WATER PROGRAMME (NRDWP)---2018, PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (PHED) DATA--2016 , LATEST REPORT OF THE CENTRAL GROUND WATER BOARD (CGWB)--2019 ALL SAYS THAT ARSENIC CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER IS ONE OF THE CRIPPLING ISSUES IN THE DRINKING WATER SCENARIO OF INDIA BUT THE RESULT OF ARSENIC(As) CONTAMINATION VARIES.

THE STATES ALONG THE GANAGA-BRAHMAPUTRA-MEGHANA RIVER BASINS SUCH AS  UTTAR PRADESH, BIHAR, JHARKHAND, WEST BENGAL AND ASSAM ARE WORST AFFECTED BY THIS HUMAN-AMPLIFIED GEOGENIC OCCURANCE. DUE TO LACK OF TESTING AND STUDIES WE HAVE UNDERESTIMATED DATA BUT DISTRICT AFFECTED BY "As" IS GROWING, THE INCONSISTENT DATA CAN BE TERMED AS "MISSED DISTRKICT". 

RANKWISE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ARSENIC AFFECTED AREAS IN INDIA ARE :

RANK 1: ASSAM--17 DISTRICT AFFECTED

RANK 2 : WEST BENGAL --

RANK 3 : BIHAR

RANK 4 : U.P.

RANK 5 : JHARKHAND

RANK 6: CHHATTISGARH

OTHERS ARE : KARNATAKA, PUNJAB AND HARYANA

ACCORDING TO NRDWP-2018 REPORT, 46 DISTRICT HAS ARSENIC LEVEL LIES BETWEEN 0.01-0.05mg/L AND 17 DISTRICTS WHERE ARSENIC LEVEL IS BEYOND 0.05mg/L. THESE DISTRICTS HAVE ARSENIC LEVEL ABOVE THE BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARD (BIS) PERMISSIBLE LIMIT FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER IS BELOW 0.01mg/L.

in the world arsenic contamination are given in world map ..

WHY WE CONCERN ABOUT ARSENIC CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER ?

 ARSENIC CONTAMINATED GROUND WATER IS USED FOR DRINKING, IRRIGATION OF AGRICULTURAL FIELDS TO GROW DIFFERENT FOOD CROPS AND VEGETABLES. THE ENTRY OF ARSENIC IN FOOD CHAIN LEADS TO DIFFUSED CONTAMINATION, POSSIBILITIES OF BIO-MAGNIFICATION IN FOOD PRODUCTS. THE RICE, WHEAT, VEGETABLES, FEEDER CROPS OF LIVESTOCKS. CATTLE PRODUCTS CONTAMINATION ALONG WITH DRINKING WATER.

ARSENIC (As) BELONGS TO THE SAME GROUP AS NITROGEN, PHOSPHOSROUS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE MEANS ARSENIC HAS STRUCTURAL SIMILARITY AND CELLULAR METTALOID TRANSPORT SYSTEM LIKE PHOSPHATE CALLED ARSENATE. THUS, THE LIVING ORGANISM LIKE PLANTS AND ANIMALS TAKES UP ARSENATE ALONG WITH PHOSPAHATE (3-OH group) .

ADVESRE IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH OF ARSENIC CONTMINATIONS ARE : SINCE, As is TOXIC, POSIONIOUS AND CARCINOGENIC AND ITS ACCUMULATION IN THE BODY MORE THE PERMISSIBLE LIMITS THEN CAUSE ARSENICOSIS. IT LEADS TO TO ADVERSE IMPACT ON HEALTH BY INHIBITING ESSENTIAL ENZYMES, WHICH ULTIMATELY LEADS TO DEATH FROM MULTI-ORGAN SYSTEM FAILURE. IT LEADS TO SKIN DAMAGES, SKIN CANCERS, DISEASES OF VASCULAR SYSTEM, DIABETES, ADVERSE REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES.

CAUSES OF HIGH ARSENIC IN GANGA-BRHAMAPUTRA-MEGHANA BASIN :---->

GENERALLY THERE ARE TWO MECHANISM TO BUILD ARSENIC IN SOIL AND GROUND WATERS . 1) UNDER HIGH pH AND OXIDISING CONDITIONS (pH >> 8.5) AND 2) UNDER REDUCING ACUIFERS CONDITIONS , HERE CHEMICAL FORM ARSENIC DEPENDS ON REDOX POTENTIAL.

                                 IN INDIA THE NORTHERN PLAINS ALLUVIAL SOIL AREAS GROUND WATER IS BEING CONTAMINATED WITH ARSENIC DUE TO HIMALAYAS CONTAINS ARSENIC RICH ROCKS SUCH AS PYRITES (FeS2) WHICH UNDERGOES EXCESSIVE WEATHERING AND EROSION . THE ERODED MATERIAL SUCH AS FINE SILT AND CLAY CARRIES BY RIVER SYSTEM AND FINALLY DEPOSITED IN THE NORTHERN PLAINS AND DELATS. THUS THE ALLUVIAL SOILS IS RICH IN ARSENIC, IT INFILTERATES WHEN GRONDWATER MOVEMENT IS SLOW IN NORTHERN PLAINS. HERE ORGAINIC MATTER GROWS, MICROBES BIND CARBON AND ARSENIC AND RELEASES THE ARSENIC IN GROUND WATERS. 

AGE OF THE AQUIFERS SEDIMENTS ALSO HELPS TO PREDICT THE OCCURENCE OF ARSENIC CONTAMINATED GROUND WATERS. THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF AQUIFERS . 

1) YOUNG AQUIFERS (HOLOCENE--10,000 YEARS TO PRESENT)-- MUCH YOUNGER, RECENT ALLUVIUM DEPOSITS, HAS YOUNG FRESH ORGANIC MATTER, FINE-GRAINED TEXTURE OF SEDIMENTS , AMORPHOUS MINERAL PHASE, OFTEN REDUCING CONDITIONS, ELEVATED ARSENIC LEVELS.

2) OLDER AQUIFER (PLEISTOCENE -- 1.8MILLION YEARS TO 10,000 YEARS AGO)--HAS LESS ORGANIC MATTER, COARSE GRAINED AND CRYSTALLINE PHASE, OXIC CONDITION, LOW ARSENIC  CONCENTRATION.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ARSENIC (As) CONTAMINATIONS ARE : (SUMMERY)

1) LOW LYING AREAS SUCH AS ALLUVIAL PLAINS AND DELTAIC PLAINS

2) REDUCING GROUND WATERS (REDOX POTENTIAL)

3) ORGANIC RICH-SEDIMENTS

4) YOUNG SEDIMENTS

5) VOLCANIC ORES

6) AREAS AFFECTED BY LARGE SCALE PUMPING 

7) MINING ACTIVITIES

8) INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES 

THUS BOTH NATURAL AND HUMAN INDUCED ARSENIC CONTAMINATION  IS INCREASING .

MEASURES/ SOLUTION : FOR ARSENIC MANAGEMENT ARE :

1) ARSENIC REMOVAL UNITS THROUGH HAEMATITE GRANULES SEDIMENTATION )

2) USES OF SURFACE WATER SOURCES

3) EXPLORING AND HARNESSING ALTERNATE ARSENIC FREE AQUIFERS.

4) ADOPTING RAINWATER HARVESTING AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES RAISE THE WATER TABLE.